 Definition  Field Listing  Rank
Order
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Background: |
Speculation over the existence of a "southern
land" was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and
American commercial operators and British and Russian national
expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other
areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it
established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a
group of islands. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the
early 20th century. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in
scientific research on the continent. A number of countries have set
up year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made
territorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In
order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the
continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies
nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in
1959, it entered into force in 1961. Learn geography the easy way by playing ZL's Geographycards (www.geographycards.com)
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Location: |
continent
mostly south of the Antarctic Circle |
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Geographic coordinates: |
90 00 S, 0
00 E |
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Map references: |
Antarctic
Region |
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Area: |
total:
14 million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km
ice-free, 13.72 million sq km ice-covered) (est.)
note:
fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North America, and
South America, but larger than Australia and the subcontinent of
Europe |
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Area - comparative: |
slightly
less than 1.5 times the size of the US |
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Land boundaries: |
0 km
note: see entry on Disputes - international |
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Coastline: |
17,968 km
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Maritime claims: |
Australia,
Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or
similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental
claims, but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted
by other countries; 20 of 27 Antarctic consultative nations have
made no claims to Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US
have reserved the right to do so) and do not recognize the claims of
the other nations; also see the Disputes - international entry
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Climate: |
severe low
temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the
ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its
higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate;
higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average
slightly below freezing |
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Terrain: |
about 98%
thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to
nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of
southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area,
and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves
along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves
constitute 11% of the area of the continent |
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Elevation extremes: |
lowest
point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m
highest
point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
note: the lowest known
land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Bentley Subglacial Trench;
at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's
lowest elevation not under seawater |
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Natural resources: |
iron ore,
chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and
coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial
quantities; none presently exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have
been taken by commercial fisheries |
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Land use: |
arable
land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 100%
(ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (2001) |
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Irrigated land: |
0 sq km
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Natural hazards: |
katabatic
(gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior;
frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic
storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast;
volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica;
other seismic activity rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from
ice shelf |
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Environment - current issues: |
in 1998,
NASA satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the
largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers;
researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light coming
through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish
lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm
one-celled antarctic marine plants; in 2002, significant areas of
ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming |
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Geography - note: |
the coldest,
windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent; during summer,
more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is
received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly
uninhabitable Learn geography the easy way by playing ZL's Geographycards (www.geographycards.com)
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Population: |
no indigenous
inhabitants, but there are both permanent and summer-only staffed
research stations
note: 26 nations, all signatory to the
Antarctic Treaty, operate seasonal (summer) and year-round research
stations on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the
population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent
and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the
region covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately
4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000
personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard
research are present in the waters of the treaty region; summer
(January) population - 3,687 total; Argentina 302, Australia 201,
Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria 16, Chile 352, China 70, Finland 11,
France 100, Germany 51, India 60, Italy 106, Japan 136, South Korea
14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60, Norway 40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia
254, South Africa 80, Spain 43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378
(1998-99); winter (July) population - 964 total; Argentina 165,
Australia 75, Brazil 12, Chile 129, China 33, France 33, Germany 9,
India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ 10, Poland 20, Russia 102,
South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998-99); research stations operated
within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60 degrees south) by
members of the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs
(COMNAP): year-round stations - 37 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3,
Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 1,
South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, Russia 6, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1,
UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (2004); summer-only stations - 36 total;
Argentina 8, Australia 2, Bulgaria 1, Chile 5, Ecuador 1, Finland 1,
Germany 1, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 3, Norway 2, Peru 1, Russia 2,
South Africa 1, Spain 2, Sweden 2, UK 1, Italy and France jointly 1
(2003-2004); in addition, during the austral summer some nations
have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long
temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research
Learn geography the easy way by playing ZL's Geographycards (www.geographycards.com)
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Country name: |
conventional long form: none
conventional short
form: Antarctica |
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Government type: |
Antarctic
Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and
entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework
for the management of Antarctica; the 26th Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Meeting was held in Madrid, Spain in June 2003; at
these periodic meetings, decisions are made by consensus (not by
vote) of all consultative member nations; at the end of 2003, there
were 45 treaty member nations: 27 consultative and 18
non-consultative; consultative (decision-making) members include the
seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national
territory (some claims overlap) and 20 non-claimant nations; the US
and Russia have reserved the right to make claims; the US does not
recognize the claims of others; Antarctica is administered through
meetings of the consultative member nations; decisions from these
meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to
their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own
national laws; the year in parentheses indicates when an acceding
nation was accepted as a consultative member, while no date
indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory;
claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New
Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are -
Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985), Ecuador
(1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987),
Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland
(1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay
(1985), and the US; non-consultative members, with year of accession
in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada (1988), Colombia
(1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia
(2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea
(1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993),
Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), Ukraine (1992), and Venezuela
(1999); Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only;
military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but
military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research
or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific
investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free
exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and
other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize,
dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be
asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear
explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes
under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00
minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 -
treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial
observation, to any area and may inspect all stations,
installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and
of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 -
allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own
states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among
member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage
activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the
treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the
parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 -
deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among
involved nations; other agreements - some 200 recommendations
adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments
include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which were
later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol; Convention for
the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral
resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was
signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this
agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment
through five specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment,
2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and
waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, and 5) area
protection and management; it prohibits all activities relating to
mineral resources except scientific research |
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Legal system: |
Antarctica
is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations;
decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member
nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in
accordance with their own national laws; US law, including certain
criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may
apply extra-territorially; some US laws directly apply to
Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C.
section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the
following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute:
the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of
nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected
areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation
into the US of certain items from Antarctica; violation of the
Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in
fines and one year in prison; the National Science Foundation and
Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities; Public Law
95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in
1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in
advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State,
Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as
required by the Antarctic Treaty; for more information, contact
Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science
Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or
visit their website at www.nsf.gov Learn geography the easy way by playing ZL's Geographycards (www.geographycards.com)
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Economy - overview: |
Fishing off
the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for the limited
economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 (1 July-30 June)
reported landing 112,934 metric tons. Unregulated fishing,
particularly of Patagonian toothfish, is a serious problem. The
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
determines the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total
of 13,571 tourists visited in the 2002-03 antarctic summer, up from
the 11,588 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were
passengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts
that make trips during the summer. Most tourist trips last
approximately two weeks. Learn geography the easy way by playing ZL's Geographycards (www.geographycards.com)
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Ports and harbors: |
there are no
developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal stations
have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to
shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a
basic wharf facility; US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S,
166 40 E), Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by
permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System"); all ships at port
are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic
Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent |
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Airports: |
there are no
developed public access airports or landing facilities; 30 stations,
operated by 16 national governments party to the Antarctic Treaty,
have restricted aircraft landing facilities for either helicopters
and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two
additional aircraft landing facilities; helicopter pads are
available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel,
sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled,
fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6
are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in
length, 3 are less than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length;
snow surface skiways, limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing
aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are
greater than 3 km in length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length,
2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in
length, and 4 are of unknown length; aircraft landing facilities
generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting
from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; aircraft landing
facilities do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the
respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization
required for landing; landed aircraft are subject to inspection in
accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty (2003 est.) |
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Airports - with unpaved runways: |
total: 20
over 3,047 m: 6
2,438 to
3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523
m: 4
under 914 m: 6 (2003 est.) |
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Heliports: |
27 stations
have restricted helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2003 est.)
Learn geography the easy way by playing ZL's Geographycards (www.geographycards.com)
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Military - note: |
the
Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such
as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the
carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of
weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for
scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
Learn geography the easy way by playing ZL's Geographycards (www.geographycards.com)
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Disputes - international: |
Antarctic
Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government
type entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina,
Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK; the US and most other
states do not recognize the territorial claims of other states and
have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right
to do so); no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees
west and 150 degrees west; several states with land claims in
Antarctica have expressed their intention to submit data to the UN
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf to extend their
continental shelf claims to adjoining undersea ridges
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